Annotated Bibliography - Key Studies In Psychology

T itle :iA nnota te diB ib lio gra p hyiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAnnotatediBibliographyiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiT abeliofiContentsIntroduction................................................................................................................................2Articlei1:PatternsiofiFamilyiIdentificationsiiniAdolescentsifromiDif ferentiBackgrounds.........2Articlei2:iiGroupiversusiIndividualiRewardiinitheiAschiExperimentiwithoutiConfederates.....4Articlei3:iCognitiveitherapyiforidepression...............................................................................6Articlei4i:iWhatiW eiThinkiT odayionitheiInterpretationiofiDreams,iFor gotteniandiDoubleiiSenses........................................................................................................................................8Articlei5i:LearnediHelplessnessiandiSocialization..................................................................10References................................................................................Err or!Bookmarknotdefined.1iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAnnotatediBibliographyiIntr oductionPsychologyiisiaiscientificifieldithatifocusesionitheistudyiofihumanibehavioriandimentaliprocesses.iItiseeksitoiunderstandihowipeopleithink,ifeel,iandibehaveiinidif ferentisituationsiandicontexts.iPsychologistsiuseiaivarietyiofiresearchimethodsiandiapproachesitoiexploreitopicsisuchiasipersonality ,iemotions,imemory ,iperception,isocialiinfluence,iandipsychologicalidisorders.Psychologyihasirootsiiniphilosophyiandiphysiology ,iandiitihasievolvedioveritimeitoibecomeiaidistinctidisciplineiwithiitsiownitheories,iconcepts,iandipractices.iT oday ,ipsychologistsiworkiiniaiwideirangeiofisettings,iincludingiuniversities,ihospitals,imentalihealthiclinics,ibusinesses,iandigovernmentiagencies.iTheyimayispecializeiiniareasisuchiasiclinicalipsychology ,icognitiveipsychology ,isocialipsychology ,idevelopmentalipsychology ,iorineuropsychology ,iamongiothers.Psychologyiisitheistudyiofihumanibehavioriandimentaliprocesses.iThereiareiseveralikeyistudiesiinipsychologyithatihaveicontributedisignificantlyitoitheifield.iThisiannotatedibibliographyiwilliprovideicitetion,isummaries,ievaluations,iandireflectionsionifiveikeyiinfluentialistudiesiinipsychology .Articlei1:PatternsiofiFamilyiIdentificationsiiniAdolescentsifr omiDiffer entiBackgr oundsRogers,iC.iR.i(1959).iAitheoryiofitherapy ,ipersonalityiandiinterpersonalir elationships,iasidevelopediinitheiclient-center ediframework.iIniS.iKochi(Ed.),iPsychology:iAistudyiofiscience,iV ol.i3:iFormulationsiofitheipersonianditheisocialicontexti(pp.i184-256).iNewiY ork:iMcGrawHill.iCarliRogers'iperson-centerediapproachitoipsychotherapyiisipresentediinithisiarticle,iiiihighlightingitheisignificanceiofiempathy ,iunconditionalipositiveiregard,iandiappropriatenessiinipsychotherapyiinteractions.CarliRogersiwasiaiwell-knownipsychologistiandipsychotherapistiwhoiwasiwell-knowniforihisiclient-centerediapproachitoitherapy .iHeireleasediaimajoristudy ,i"Aitheoryiofitherapy ,2iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAnnotatediBibliographyipersonality ,iandiinterpersonaliinteractions,iasiestablishediinitheiclient-centerediparadigm,"iini1959,iwhichiexplainedihisitheoryiandipractise.Rogersistatediinitheipresentiresearchithatihumansihaveianiunderlyingidesireitoiachieveiselfactualization,iwhichicanibeiaidedibyiaitherapeuticirelationshipidefinedibyiempathy ,icongruence,iandiunreservedlyipositiveiregard.iHeithoughtithatipeopleiareicapableiofiunderstandingiandiaddressingitheiriowniissues,iandithatitheifunctioniofitheitherapistiisitoiprovideiaisupportiveiandinonjudgmentalienvironmentiiniwhichiclientsicanifreelyiexploreitheirifeelingsiandiexperiences.Theiconceptiofitheiself-conceptiisiaimajoricomponentiiniRogers'itheory .iHeidescribediselfconceptiasitheitotalityiofiaiperson'siopinionsiofithemselves,iincludingibeliefs,iattitudes,iandivalues.iRogersithoughtithaticongruenceibetweenione'siself-conceptiandione'siexperiencesiisicrucialiforipsychologicalihealthiandiwell-being.TheiconceptiofiempathyiisianothericrucialipartiofiRogers'iphilosophy .iHeithoughtithatitherapistsineededitoibeiableitoigraspitheiriclients'iexperiencesifromitheiripointiofiview ,iwithoutipassingijudgementiorievaluatingithem.iThisientailsipayingicloseiattentionitoiclients,ireflectingioniwhatitheyisay ,iandiattemptingitoiunderstanditheiriemotionalistate.iRogersimaintainedithatiempathyiisinecessaryiforidevelopingiaitrustingiandiopenitherapeuticiconnection.Rogersihighlighteditheineediofiunconditionalipositiveiregardiiniadditionitoiempathy .iHeithoughtithatitherapistsimustiembraceitheiriclientsiwithoutijudgementiandiprovideiaisecureispaceiforithemitoifreelyiexpressitheirifeelingsiandiexperiences.iTherapistsicaniassisticlientsiestablishiaipositiveiself-conceptiandiself-esteemibyidisplayingiunconditionalipositiveiregard.Rogers'itheoryihasisparkedisignificanticontroversyiandicriticismioveritheiyears.iSomeidetractorsibelieveithatihisimethodiisioverlyisimplisticiandifailsitoiaccountiforitheiintricateiinterplayiofisocial,icultural,iandienvironmentalielementsithaticaniinfluenceipsychologicaliwellbeing.iOthersihaveichastisediRogersiforiignoringitheiroleiofiunconsciousiprocessesiinihumanibehaviour .3iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAnnotatediBibliographyBesideitheseiobjections,iRogers'itheoryihasihadiaisubstantialiimpactionipsychology ,iparticularlyihumanisticipsychology .iHisifocusionitheisignificanceiofiempathy ,iunconditionalipositiveiregard,ianditheitherapeuticirelationshipihasihadianiimpactionimodernipsychotherapyipractises,iinspiringimanyitherapistsitoitakeiaimoreiclient-centerediapproachitoitherapy .Furthermore,iCarliRogers'ipaper ,i"Aitheoryiofitherapy ,ipersonality ,iandiinterpersonaliinteractionsiasievolvediinitheiclient-centerediframework,"iof fersiaidetailediandisignificantiexpositioniofihisiclient-centerediapproachitoitherapy .iHisifocusioniempathy ,iunconditionalipositiveiregard,ianditheivalueiofitheitherapeuticiconnectionihadiaiconsiderableiimpactionitheifieldiofipsychology ,iandihisitheoryiisistilliusedibyimanyimodernipsychotherapistsiasiaireferenceipoint.iWhileithisimethodologyihasibeenicriticised,ihisicontributionsitoipsychologyicannotibeiunderestimated.Articlei2:iiGr oupiversusiIndividualiRewardiinitheiAschiExperimentiwithoutiConfederatesAsch,iS.iE.i(1951).iEffectsiofigr oupipr essur eiuponitheimodificationiandidistortioniofijudgments.iIniH.iGuetzkowi(Ed.),iGr oups,ileadershipiandimeni(pp.i177-190).iPittsbur gh,iP A:iCarnegieiPr ess.ThisiarticleireportsioniAsch'siexperimentsioniconformity ,iiniwhichiparticipantsiwereiaskeditoimakeijudgmentsiaboutitheilengthiofilinesiandiwereiinfluencedibyitheiincorrectiresponsesiofiaigroup.Thei1951istudyibyiSolomoniAschionitheief fectsiofigroupipressureionijudgementsiisiregardediasiaiseminaliworkiinitheifieldiofisocialipsychology .iAsch'sistudyitransformediouriknowledgeioficomplianceiandilaiditheigroundworkiforifutureiresearchiintoisocialiinfluence.Aschiundertookiainumberiofiexperimentsitoiseeihowimuchipeopleisubscribeitoicollectiveiopinion,ieveniwheniiticontradictsitheiriownivisioniofireality .iParticipantsiinihisiexperimentsiwereiaskeditoiassessitheilengthiofilinesidrawnioniaicard.iEachiparticipantiwasiassigneditoiaigroupiwithiainumberioficonfederatesiwhoiwereitolditoirespondiincorrectlyionisomeitrials.iAsch4iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAnnotatediBibliographyidiscoveredithatiparticipantsiregularlyiconformeditoitheigroup'siinaccurateiassessment,ieveniwhenitheigroupiwasiclearlyiwrong.iAschicountedihowimanyitimesieachiparticipantiagreediwithitheimajority .iOnitheicriticalitrials,iapproximatelyione-thirdi(32%)iofitheiparticipantsiinithisisituationiwentialongiwithitheimanifestlyierroneousimajority .Aroundi75%iofisubjectsiconformediatileastionceithroughoutithei12ikeyitrials,iwhilei25%inevericonformed.W ithinoipressureitoicomplyitoiconfederates,ilessithani1%iofiparticipantsiinitheicontroligroupigaveitheiincorrectianswer .iWhenicontactediafteritheiexperiment,itheimajorityiofithemiadmittedithatitheyididinotitrulyibelieveitheiriconformingireplies,ibutihadigoneialongiwithitheigroupioutiofifeariofibeingimockediorilabelledi"unusual."Severaliofithemistatedithatitheyitrulyibelieveditheigroup'siresponsesiwereitrue.Peopleiapparentlyiconformiforitwoireasons:itheyiwantitoiblendiiniwithitheigroupi(normativeiinfluence)ianditheyibelieveitheigroupiisimoreiinformedithanitheyiarei(informationaliinfluence).Asch'siresearchersiopineditheiprevalentiperspectiveiatitheitime,iwhichimaintainedithatiindividualsimadeilogicaliandiindependentidecisions.iInstead,iAschidemonstratedithatipeopleiareiinfluencedibyisocialipressure,iandithatithisipressureicanileaditoiconformityieveniwhenidoingisoiisimanifestlyiunreasonable.Asch'siresearchiwasinotableinotionlyiforiitsiempiricalifindings,ibutialsoiforitheimethodologicaliimprovementsiitipioneered.iAsch,iforiexample,istudiedisocialibehaviouriiniaicontrolledilaboratoryisetting,iwhichiwasiaishiftifromitheimoreinaturalisticimethodologiesiutilisediinipreviousiresearch.iAschialsoiusediairigorousiexperimentalidesign,iwhichiallowedihimitoivaryitheivariablesiofiinterestisystematicallyiandiestablishicausalilinksibetweenithem.iFurtheritheseiissues,ifollowingiresearchihasiattempteditoirefineiandiextendiAsch'sifindings.iForiexample,iresearchersihaveiexploreditheisettingsithatiareimostilikelyitoiresultiiniconformity ,iasiwelliasitheielementsithatidetermineitheistrengthioficonformity .iOthersihaveiinvestigateditheineurologicalimechanismsibehindisocialiinfluenceiandiattempteditoidiscoveribrainiareasithatiareiactiveiwhenipeopleiconformitoigroupipressure.5iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAnnotatediBibliographyBesidesitheseiconcerns,iAsch'sistudyiisiconsiderediaikeyiworkiinisocialipsychologyiandiaitestamentitoitheief fectivenessiofiexperimentalimethodsiinifurtheringiouriunderstandingiofihumanibehaviour .iAsch'siresearchisetitheipathiforisubsequentistudiesioniconformity ,igroupidynamics,iandisocialiinfluence,iandiitihasihadiailong-lastingiimpactionipsychologyiandibeyond.Articlei3:iCognitiveitherapyiforidepr ession.Beck,iA.iT .i(1979).iCognitiveitherapyiofidepr ession.iNewiY ork:iGuilfor diPr ess.ThisibookioutlinesiAaroniBeck'sicognitiveitherapyimethoditoitreatingidepression,iemphasisingitheiidentificationiandimodificationiofinegativeithoughtipatternsiandibeliefs.AaroniT .iBeckiisiaidirectiancestorioficognitiveitherapy ,iaitypeiofipsychotherapyithatifocusesionianiindividual'sithoughtiprocessesiandibeliefs.iHisi1979ibooki"CognitiveiT reatmentiofiDepression"ihadiaisignificantiimpactiinitheifieldsiofipsychologyiandipsychiatry ,igivingiaitheoreticaliandipracticalifoundationiforiunderstandingianditreatingidepressioniwithicognitiveiapproaches.Beck'sicognitiveibehavioritherapyitechniqueiisipredicatedionitheiideaithatidepressioniisicausedibyibothiexternalicircumstancesianditheiindividual'siinterpretationiofithoseievents.iIniotheriwords,idepressioniisiinducedinotijustibyiterribleilifeievents,ibutialsoibyinegativeiattitudesiandibeliefsiaboutioneself,itheiworld,iandione'sifuture.iBeckisuggestedithatibyimodifyingitheseinegativeiattitudesiandibeliefs,ipeopleimayialleviateitheirisadnessiandiavoidirelapsesiinitheifuture.TheiidentificationiandicontroliofiautomaticithoughtsithatiareidetrimentaliisiaicrucialielementiiniBeck'sicognitiveitherapy .iThoughtsithatienteritoimindiautomaticallyiandiwithoutimuchiconsciousief fortiareiknowniasiautomaticithoughts.iBeckiar guedithatitheseithoughts,iwhichiareifrequentlyiunpleasant,iillogical,iandiunrealistic,icanicontributeitoiandimaintainidepression.6iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAnnotatediBibliographyiIndividualsilearnitoiidentifyitheiriautomaticiideasiandievaluateitheiriaccuracyiandilogicithroughicognitiveitherapy .iIndividualsicaniimproveitheirimoodiandiminimiseitheiridepressionibyiconfrontingitheseinegativeithoughtsiandireplacingithemiwithimoreirealisticiandioptimisticiones.TheiuseiofibehaviouraliactivationiisianotherifundamentaliconceptiiniBeck'sicognitiveitherapy .iBehavioraliactivationiisiaistrategyithatiinvolvesiencouragingipeopleitoiparticipateiinifuniandirewardingiactivitiesieveniwhenitheyidoinotifeelilikeiit.iBeckibelievedithatidepressionifrequentlyicausesiaidropiiniactivityilevel,iwhichimightiaggravateidepression.iIndividualsicaniimproveitheirimoodiandiminimiseitheiridepressionibyiengagingiinijoyfuliactivities.Beckialsoiemphasiseditheitherapeuticirelationship'sisignificanceiinicognitiveitherapy .iHeithoughtithatief fectiveitreatmentirequirediaiconstructiveiandicollaborativeirelationshipibetweenitheitherapistianditheiindividual.iTheitherapistiof fersitheiindividualisupport,idirection,iandifeedbackiwhileialsoiencouragingitheiindividualitoitakeianiactiveiroleiinitheiriownitreatment.iIndividualsiareiempowereditoitakeichar geiofitheiriownithoughtsiandibehavioursiandiimproveitheirimentalihealthiasiairesultiofithisicollaborativeiapproach."Cognitioniregulatesitheiaf fect,ibehaviour ,iandiphysiologyiconnectediwithiemotion,"iaccordingitoioneiofiBeck'simostifamousiquotes.iThisiphraseiexpressesihisiopinionithatithoughtsiandibeliefsishapeiemotions,ibehaviours,iandibodilyisensations.iNegativeiandiirrationalithoughts,iaccordingitoiBeck,icanileaditoiunpleasantifeelingsiandibehaviours,iwhichicaniexacerbateidepression.iIndividualsicaniinterruptitheipatterniandienhanceitheirimoodiandifunctioningibyichangingitheirinegativeibeliefs.Moreover ,iAaroniT .iBeck'si"Cognitivei"CognitiveiT reatmentiforiDepression"ihasimadeiaitremendousiimpactionitheiareaiofipsychologyiandipsychiatryibyiestablishingiaitheoreticaliandipracticaliframeworkiforiunderstandingianditreatingidepressioniwithicognitiveistrategies.iBeck'sicognitiveitherapyiapproachiemphasisesitheineediofiidentifyingiandichangingiharmfuliautomaticibeliefs,iasiwelliasiengagingiinipleasurableiactivitiesiandidevelopingiaipositiveitherapeuticiconnection.i"Cognitionimediatesitheiaf fect,ibehaviour ,iandiphysiologyilinkediwithiemotion,"iBeckisays,iemphasisingitheiimportanceiofithoughtsiandibeliefsiinidevelopingimental7iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAnnotatediBibliographyihealth.iHisicontributionsitoicognitiveitherapyihaveiassistedimanyipeopleiiniovercomingidepressioniandiimprovingitheirigeneraliwell-being.Articlei4i:iWhatiW eiThinkiT odayionitheiInterpr etationiofiDr eams,iForgotteniandiDoubleiSensesFr eud,iS.i(1915).iTheiunconscious.iIniJ.iStracheyi(Ed.iandiT rans.),iTheiStandar diEditioniofitheiCompleteiPsychologicaliW orksiofiSigmundiFr eud,iV ol.i14i(pp.i159-215).iLondon:iHogarthiPr ess.iThisiarticleidelvesiintoiFreud'siideaiofitheiunconsciousiandihowirepressediwantsiandiemotionsicaniappeariinibehaviouriandihaveianiimpactionimentalihealth."TheiUnconscious,"iSigmundiFreud'si1915ipaper ,iisiaikeyiworkiinitheiareaiofipsychologyithatiinvestigatesitheifunctioniofiunconsciousibrainiprocessesiinicreatingihumanibehaviour .iTheipaperiisipartiofiFreud'siwideribodyiofiwork,iknowniasipsychoanalysis,iandiitiexplainsihisiideaiofitheiunconsciousimindiinidetail.Theihumanimind,iaccordingitoiFreud,iisidividediintoithreeiparts:iconscious,ipreconscious,iandiunconscious.iTheiconsciousimindiisitheipartiofitheimindithatiisiawareiofiouricurrentiideas,ifeelings,iandiexperiences.iTheipreconsciousimindiisitheipartiofitheimindithatistoresimemoriesiandiotherimentalistuf fithatiweiareinotiawareiofibuticanieasilyiaccessiifineeded.iInicontrast,itheiunconsciousimindicontainsimentalistuf fithatiisifullyihiddenifromiouriawarenessiandiisidif ficultitoireach.Freudifeltithatitheiunconsciousimindiwasiimportantiinimouldingihumaniconduct.iHeicontendedithatimostiofiouribehaviouriisiinfluencedibyiunconsciousireasonsiandiwants,imanyiofiwhichihaveitheirioriginsiinichildhood.RepressioniisianiimportantiideaiiniFreud'sitheoryiofitheiunconscious.iTheiprocessithroughiwhichitheimindiautomaticallyisendsiunpleasantithoughts,ifeelings,iandidesiresiintoitheiunconsciousiisiknowniasirepression.iRepressedimaterial,iaccordingitoiFreud,icaniinduce8iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAnnotatediBibliographyipsychologicalianguishiandisymptomsisuchiasianxiety ,isadness,iandineuroses.iPsychoanalysisiaimsitoibringirepressedimaterialiintoiconsciousiawareness,ihelpingipeopleitoiworkiwithiunconsciousiissuesiandiattainibetteripsychologicalihealth.Dreams,iaccordingitoiFreud,iwereialsoianiimportantiwindowiintoitheiunconsciousimind.iHeicontendedithatidreamsiwereiaitypeiofiwishifulfilment,iallowingiusitoisatisfyiunconsciousineedsithatiweicouldinotiexpressiiniwakingilife.iFreudifeltithatipsychoanalystsimayilearniaboutithemselvesibyianalysingitheisymbolismiandisubstanceiofitheiridreams.TheiOedipusicomplexiisianotheriimportantinotioniiniFreud'sitheoryiofitheiunconscious.iTheiOedipusicomplex,iaccordingitoiFreud,iisiaiuniversalipsychologicaliphenomenaiiniwhichiyoungichildrenihaveisexualiimpulsesiforitheiriopposite-sexiparentiwhileiviewingitheirisame-sexiparentiasiairival.iFreudibelievedithatitheiOedipusicomplexiwasianiimportantielementiofitheipsychosexualidevelopmentiprocessiandithatifailingitoiresolveiiticouldileaditoipsychologicaliproblemsiiniadulthood.CriticsihaveicontendedithatiFreud'sinotioniofitheiunconsciousiisiundulyideterministiciandireductionist,ireducingicomplexihumanibehaviouritoisimple,imechanisticiprocesses.iCriticsihaveialsoichallengedihisiemphasisionisexualityiasiwelliasihisidependenceioniunverifiableiassumptionsiaboutitheiunconsciousimind.Despiteitheseiconcerns,iFreud'sinotioniofitheiunconsciousihasihadiaisignificantiimpactionipsychologyiandicontinuesitoiaf fectimodernimethodsitoipsychotherapy .iHisifocusionitheiimpactiofiearlyichildhoodiexperiencesiinimouldingiadultibehaviour ,iasiwelliasihisiviewiofitheimindiasiaicomplexisystemiofiinterconnectediprocesses,ihasibeeniparticularlyiimportant.Finally ,iFreud'sipublicationi"TheiUnconscious"iisistilliconsiderediaibasiciworkiinitheiareaiofipsychologyisinceiitiprovidesiaifulliexplanationiofihisitheoryiofitheiunconsciousimindiandiits9iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAnnotatediBibliographyifunctioniinimouldingihumanibehaviour .iDespiteiextensiveidisagreementiandicontroversy ,ihisiviewsicontinueitoihaveiaiprofoundiimpactioniouricomprehensioniofihowitheimindiworksiandiitsicomplexity .Articlei5i:LearnediHelplessnessiandiSocializationSeligman,iM.iE.iP .i(1975).iHelplessness:iOnidepr ession,idevelopment,iandideath.iSaniFrancisco:iW .H.iFr eemaniandiCompany .Thisibookiexaminesifeelingsiofiinadequacyiandiitsiimplicationsiforimentalihealth,ispecificallyitheidevelopmentiofidepression.MartiniSeligman'si1975ibooki"Helplessness:iOniDepression,iDevelopment,iandiDeath"iinvestigatesitheipsychologicaliissueiofilearnedihelplessness.iAccordingitoiSeligman,iwhenipeopleicontinuallyiexperienceiterribleiexperiencesiandibelieveitheyihaveinoicontrolioverithem,itheyidevelopiaisenseiofihelplessness,iwhichicanileaditoidespairiandiotheriundesirableiresults.Theibookiopensiwithianioutlineiofitheinotioniofilearnedihelplessnessiasiwelliasistudiesioniit.iSeligmanidescribesihowiheiandihisicolleaguesiconductedicanineitestsitoidemonstrateitheief fectsiofilearnedihelplessness,iandiheiextendsitheseifindingsitoihumans.MartiniSeligman'si1975ibooki"Helplessness:iOniDepression,iDevelopment,iandiDeath"iinvestigatesitheipsychologicaliissueiofilearnedihelplessness.iAccordingitoiSeligman,iwhenipeopleicontinuallyiexperienceiterribleiexperiencesiandibelieveitheyihaveinoicontrolioverithem,itheyidevelopiaisenseiofihelplessness,iwhichicanileaditoidespairiandiotheriundesirableiresults.Theibookiopensiwithianioutlineiofitheinotioniofilearnedihelplessnessiasiwelliasistudiesioniit.iSeligmanidescribesihowiheiandihisicolleaguesiconductedicanineitestsitoidemonstrateitheief fectsiofinegativeithinking,iandiheiextendsitheseifindingsitoihumans.i"Helplessness:iOniDepression,iDevelopment,iandiMortality"iisiaiseminaliworkithatihasihadiaiconsiderableiimpactionipsychology .iSeligman'siresearchionilearnedihelplessnessihas1 0iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiAnnotatediBibliographyicontributeditoiaibetteriunderstandingiofitheicausesiofidepressioniandiotherinegativeioutcomes,iasiwelliasitheicreationiofinewitherapiesiandiinterventions.Seligman'sistraightforwardiandiinterestingiwritingistyleiisioneiofitheibook'simerits.iHeiexplainsicomplexisubjectsiinisimpleitermsiandiusesiseveraliexamplesiandicaseistudiesitoidemonstrateihisipoints.Theibook'sicomprehensivenessiisianotheriasset.iSeligmanidiscussesiaiwideirangeiofisubjectsilinkeditoilearnedihelplessness,iincludingiitsicauses,ief fects,iandisocietaliimplications.iHeialsoiof fersipracticaliadviceiforipreventingianditreatingiacquiredihelplessness.iHelplessnessihasibeenidiscovereditoilockipeopleiinitheicelliofiindif ference,iasiitinotionlyicausesiaistateiofiimmobilityiforitheiindividual,ibutialsoimanyiformsioficommunalideprivation.iAccordingitoitheilearnedihelplessnessitheory ,ianiincreaseiininegativeireinforcementileadsitoipassive,ihelplessibehaviouralireactionsi"throughiincreasingisocialiretreat,iloweriinterestiiniexploration,idiminishedisocialistatus,iincreasedidepressiveiandipassive-aggressiveiconduct"i(Seligman,i1974).iTheirelativeistrengthiofilearnedihelplessnessiisideterminedibyiaiperson'sigeneticifeaturesiandisocialiimpact.iAsiairesult,iinvestigationsionitheinature/inurtureiproblemimustibeiinvestigated.iItiisiunderstoodiinitheiframeworkiofisocialisationithatiacquiredihelplessnessiinichildreniarisesithroughisocio-politicalisocialisation,iwhichiisiprimarilyiimpactedibyifamilyiandischoolienvironment.Unfortunately ,itheibookihasicertainidrawbacks.iOneicritiqueilevellediagainstiSeligman'sistudyiisithatiitioveremphasisesiindividualicharacteristicsiwhileiignoringitheisignificanceiofisocialiandiculturaliinfluencesiinitheidevelopmentiofilearnedihelplessness.iFurthermore,isomeiopponentsihaveicontendedithatiSeligman'sidogistudiesimayinotibeidirectlyitransferableitoipeople.Theinecessityiofiresearchingihumanibehaviourianditheicomplexiinterplayiofiindividualiandisocialielementsithaticontributeitoiouripsychologicaliwell-beingiisiemphasisediiniSeligman'sibook.iAsinewitechnologiesiareideveloped,iitiisicriticalitoievaluateitheipossibleiimpactiofitheseisystemsioniourimentalihealthiandiwell-being.Finally ,iMartiniSeligman'si"Helplessness:iOniDepr ession,iDe velopmen t,iandiDea th"iisiaiclassiciw orkitha tihasihadiailong-las tingiin fluenceionitheifieldiofip sy chology .iItigiv esiuse fuliinsigh ts1 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