Essay On The Energy Security Of Greece

EnergySecurity:TheCaseofGr eeceP ro gra m me:I n te rn atio nalR ela tio ns,S tr a te g ya n dS ecu rityM arc h2 023Oilpriceshavemorethandoubledinrecentyears,contributingtotheshiftinemphasistowardener gysecurity .T errorism,ascarcityofresources,andgeopoliticalrivalriesareallfactorsthatcontributetothefuelingofthissubject(Y ergi,2006).Thereisnosingledefinitionofener gysecurity;itisfluidandshiftsdependingontheareasoffocus.Thisalsoincludestheenvironmentalviewpointonrenewableener gysources.Nationsareincreasinglyconcernedabouthowtosecuredomesticandinternationalener gysupplieswhilealsoaddressingtheissueofclimatechange.SeveralgeopoliticalandeconomicdevelopmentshaveoccurredinrecenttimesthathaveheightenedEurope svulnerabilityintheaspectofener gysupplies.Iran'sethnicconflictsanddisputesoverthenucleardealhaverestrictedtheavailabilityofsuppliesinthePersianGulf.Incontrast,theeconomiesofChinaandIndiahaveseentremendousamountsofener gyconsumptionresultinginglobalcompetitionoverscarcehydrocarbonresources(Bahgat,2006).Duetoitshighrelianceonener gyimportsandscarcityofener gyreserves,theEuropeanUnionisoneamongthevulnerableinternationalor ganizations.Inthecaseofrenewableener gy,astudywasconductedonselectedEuropeancountriesandtheresultsofthedataenvelopmentanalysis(DEA)showthatcountrieslikeSweden,GermanyandSpainareleadingintheproductionanduseofrenewableener gysourcesby8.4%incomparisontoFranceandtheUnitedKingdom(Gkgz&Gvercin2018).G re eceTheEasternMediterraneanregionprovidesthemajorityoftheEuropeanUnion'snaturalreserves.CyprusandIsraelhavethemostnaturalgasreserves,whichfeedbothdomesticandinternationalmarkets.ThemajorityoftheseexportsareroutedthroughCyprusandGreecetotheEuropeanUnion.Duetothelowamountsoftheseener gysourcesproduceddomestically ,GreeceisknowntoheavilyrelyonoilandgasimportsfromRussia,aswellasadditionalsuppliesfromNorthAfricaandMiddleEasterncountries(Jones,2017).Accordingtoonestudy ,Greece'soverallrelianceonfuelhasgrownovertimeandwasexpectedtoreach99.7%and100%by2018.(Jones,p.9)[seeT able1].However ,sincetheearly2000s,Greecehasproposednewinnovativeener gypolicieswiththegoalofservingasa"bridgecountry"forener gytransportation(Necimetal,2021).1T able1.TheT ablebelowshowsthedemand,importdependencyandtotalener gysupplyforoilandgasinGreecebetween1990-2012,aswellasthepredictionsfor2018.19902000201020122018GreeceGasDemand(mcm/y)1232,0523,8504,3544,901ImportDependency(%)098.299.899.9100TPES(%)161214-OilDemand(kb/d)314.1399.2372.4317.9274.6ImportDependency(%)94.698.599.499.599.7TPES(%)56555145-A vaila b le :h ttp s://e p rin ts .w hite ro se .a c.u k/1 1 4686/9 /E R SS_D _16_00498R 2_1% 20% 281% 29.p dfP re v io u sr e se a rc hEner gystudiestodayaredividedintoqualitativeandquantitativeresearch.Qualitativeresearchemploysnumericalfigurestoassessener gysecurityperformance,whereasquantitativeresearchfocusesoncategorizingener gysecurityconcerns(Chytiri,2017).InJuly2012,twoGreekuniversitiesconductedaquestionnaire-basedsurveyonener gysecurity(Thessaloniki,andUniversityofAthens).Therewere1 19participantsintotal,ranginginagefrom16to65yearsold,withthemajoritybeingintheir20s(Jones,p.1 1).Thelevelofconcernaboutener gysecuritywasmeasuredusingsixcriteria,fourofwhichwerebasedontheAsiaPacificEner gyResearchCentre's(APERC)dimensions:availabilityofresourcesandrelianceonener gyimports,af fordabilityofener gysupply ,accessibilityinrelationtosustainabilityofener gysupply ,andsocialacceptability(APERC,2007).Overall,thesurveyfoundthatthemajorityofGreekparticipantswereconcernedaboutener gysecurity ,withthegreatestconcernbeingener gyaf fordability(Jones,p.14)[seeT able2].2T able2.ThetablebelowshowsthesurveyresultsforGreekparticipantsconcernedaboutener gysecurityinrelationtotheAsiaPacificEner gyResearchCentre'sdimensions.Ener gySecurityConcernsGreeceSignificanceAf fordability3.41(0.71).003**A vailability/ImportDependency3.53(0.78).002**Accessibility/Rationing3.14(0.93).065A vaila b le :h ttp s://e p rin ts .w hite ro se .a c.u k/1 1 4686/9 /E R SS_D _16_00498R 2_1% 20% 281% 29.p dfT he4 A sTheavailabilityofener gysupplygenerallyreferstothepresenceofener gysourceswithinthecountryand,intheeventofascarcityofresources,thecountry'sabilitytoimportthemfromothercountries.AcountrylikeGreecehasahighsourceofdiversitybecauseithasmultipleener gyimportsources,andarecentsurveyfoundthatmostGreeksareconcernedabouttheimportdependencyonhigh-carbonfossilfuels,whichhavenegativeenvironmentalconsequences(Jones,p.21).Greeceenteredadebtcrisisin2008asaresultofitsover -relianceonhydrocarbonresources,andinrecentyears,debateshavecenteredonproposingreformstoGreece'sdomesticener gypolicies.In2009,theMinistryofEnvironment,Ener gy,andClimateChange(YPEKA)wasestablishedtoensurethepropermanagementofnonrenewableresourcesandtheprotectionofener gyresources.Greece'sener gyproductionislinkedtothePublicPowerCorporation(PPC),whichgenerates12%ofitselectricityfromhydroelectricpowerplantsand20%fromnaturalgas(Necimetal,p.87).Naturalgasisthemostpertinentbecauseithasbeenprimarilyusedintheindustrialsectorsincetheearly1990s.Accordingtomarketdata,Greecehasthreemainnaturalgassuppliers:Gazprom,Sonatrach,andBOT AS(Necimetal,p.88).Asaresult,sincethebeginningofthetwenty-firstcentury ,Greecehastakendeliberatestepstocreateincentivesforreducingrelianceonimportsandinsteadservingasa"bridgecountry"forprojectssuchastheT ransAdriaticPipeline(T AP).Thecostofener gysuppliesforbothhouseholdsandindustriesisacriticaltopicintermsofaf fordability .Concernsaboutaf fordabilitycanalsobetracedbacktothe2008economicrecession,andconclusionsabouttheabsolutecostoffutureener gycanbedrawn(Jones,p.23).3MostsurveyparticipantsinGreekuniversitiesagreedthattheywouldstillbeabletopayforener gyinthefuturedespiteinflation,buttheyareconcernedabouttheadditionalexpensesthatwouldhaveasignificantimpactontheirabilitytoengageinsocialpracticesbyconsumingmorethantheiravailableincome.Asaresult,thereisaneedforadditionalresearchonfutureresearchonthesubjectofaf fordabilitybasedonindividualandgroupdata.(Chytiri2017,p.19)definesacceptabilityintermsofenvironmentalconservationaswellasthesustainableuseandexploitationofener gyresources.Theinversewouldimplythatener gyproductionwouldhavebothenvironmentalandsocialconsequences.Thesurveyresultsintermsofacceptabilityrevealasenseofur gencyinlimitingenvironmentaldegradationcausedbyhumanactivity(Jones,p.24).Furthermore,thedemandforener gyisexpectedtochangeasaresultofindustrializationandglobaloverpopulation.TheMinistryofEnvironment,Ener gy,andClimateChange(YPEKA)wasalsoestablishedtomanageener gyresourceconservationandsustainabilityinenvironmentallyfriendlywaysbystrengtheningandcooperatingwithenvironmentalinstitutions.Apositiveresultoftheglobalcrisisof2008wasthesignificantdecreaseinGreece'sCO2emissions:-8.8Mt.(Necimetal,p.87).Accessibilityreferstoacountry'sabilitytosecureener gyresourceswhileovercominggeopolitical,economic,andtechnologicalbarriers.Themajorityofoilandgasreservesareunevenlydistributedacrossseveralcountries,withtheMiddleEastholding47.3%oftheoilreserves,followedbySouthAfricaandCentralAmericaat19.4%,Russiaat10.1%,andCanadaat6%.Intermsofnaturalgas,theMiddleEastproduces42.8%ofthetotal,whileEurope(primarilyRussia,thesecondlar gestproducer)andEurasiahold30.4%ofthereserves(Chytiri,p.18).Asaresultofener gysuppliesbeinggeographicallydistantfromener gyconsumptioncenters,theissueofener gysecurityarises.Forexample,theArcticOceanhassignificantoilreserves,butduetoalackofadvancedtechnology ,itisdif ficulttoextractandtransportoiltocountriessuchasGreece.Similarly ,mostnaturalgasreservesarelocatedfarfromconsumercountries,andpipelinesystemdevelopmentisstillongoing.Furthermore,borderconflictscanaf fecttheaccessibilityandexploitationofener gyresources;inthiscase,disputedseabordersamongSoutheastMediterraneancountries.Morespecifically ,duetothepoliticalsituationinbothcountries,theRussia-Ukrainewar ,whichbeganinFebruary2021,posesabarriertoener gy4access.OtherthanGreece,mostcountriesarewaryofinvestinginener gyprojectsinRussiaandUkraine,wherepoliticalunrestisprevalent(Chytiri,p.19).C on clu sio nAlthoughGreeceisarelativelydependentcountryintermsofener gyresources,itcanclearlybedemonstratedthatsignificantstepsarebeingtakentobecomeanener gytransitcountry .TheBur gas-AlexandroupolisPipeline(1993),theT rans-AdriaticPipeline(2003),andtheLNGT erminalProjecthaveenabledGreecetobecomearegionalener gycenterfortransportingoilandgastoEasternEurope(Necimetal,p.92).DespitethecancellationofprojectssuchastheBur gas-AlexandroupolisPipeline,Greecehasemer gedasakeyplayerintheEU'sSouthernGasCorridorpolicy .Eventually ,GreecehopestotransformtheEasternMediterraneanregionintooneofcooperationintermsofener gyresources,ratherthanoneofpoliticaltensions.Inthisscenario,GreeceisattemptingtomediateandresolveEU-T